Part 1 of our Sowell trilogy reviewed the book "Intellectuals and Race". Part 2 looked at a slice of the recent book- Wealth and Poverty: An International Perspective 2015. This piece, part 3 of our trilogy, reviews the rest of "Wealth, Poverty and Politics: An International Perspective" - specifically that part regarding alleged "tropical development." It is an article of faith in numerous right wing, "HBD" or "hereditarian" quarters, including the arguments of assorted right wing scholars like Lynn, Rushton, Vanhannen, etc, that "harsh "conditions in temperate or colder zones promoted time urgency and discipline compared to "lagging" tropical peoples. But is this really so? The argument appears in Sowell's book "Wealth, Poverty and Politics: An International Perspective," and when put to the test, comes up short. Let's get down to business.
The current writer is a supporter of SOME of Thomas Sowell's
work, but over the past 15 years it has lost much of its bite, and too often,
seems a re-thread of earlier stuff. Sowell's latest book- Wealth, Poverty and
Politics: An International Perspective, continues in his usual
hereditarian/libertarian vein, illustrated nicely by his discussion of the old
hereditarian saw about the greater goodness and virtue of cold climate folk
versus those slower-witted tropical peoples with their pineapples and bananas.
Yes, Thomas Sowell actually does talk about "pineapples and bananas." Now where have we
seen such bogus imagery befo?
His basic
argument- which is typical of the racialist "hereditarian" or HBD
crowd, is to claim so-called "life-threatening" challenges faced by
people in the temperate zones, who have to do all this terribly hard work to
stave off winter starvation. Due to this, the good cold climate folk develop a
sense of "urgency" and "discipline." Meanwhile back there
in the tropics- they have so much food "spontaneously supplied by
nature" - you know, like "bananas and pineapples" - they never
really got on the ball.
Sowell strikes up a similar note in his own way, himself
being part of the well funded network of think tanks such as the Hoover
Institution. But he somewhat contradicts his own writing. After several pages
regaling the reader about how terrible the tropics is, and how good the
temperate zones are climatically and geographically, he then shifts to the
standard "we have it so tough here in the cold" argument of the
hereditarians. Let's look at it- quote:
QUOTE:
"The life-threatening
challenge that dominated the temperate zones of the world for millennia was
growing enough food during the limited spring and summer months to last through
the cold winter months. It was an inescapable necessity, for sheer physical
survival, to begin plowing or otherwise breaking up the land for planting when
the ground thawed in the spring. This meant that peoples living where seasons
changed drastically had to develop a sense of urgency about time, and the
discipline to adjust to its requirements- qualities that were not nearly so
necessary in places where food could be grown year round, in addition to the
availability of much food spontaneously supplied by nature in many tropical
lands. The other inescapable necessity of the temperate zones, where seasons
are so different, was saving food to store for the winter. This required not
only the discipline of saving, but also the conversion of perishable foods like
milk and fruit into storable foods like cheese and jam. Here again, this was
not such a pressing necessity in the tropics."
--Thomas Sowell, 2015. Wealth,
Poverty and Politics: An International Perspective, p.40
Mysteriously missing cold climate European "role models." But the above is
dubious. Right off the bat the question arises- if cold climate promoted oh so virtuous things like "urgency" and discipline" why did it take so long for "urgent" northern European "role models" to develop civilization? How could they lag behind so long with all the advantages they had? Historically Northern Europeans are also-rans, with significant world influence only within the last 600 years. Where were these paragons the previous 10,000 years before?
Even more interesting, his own research (Ethnic America 1981) shows some major cold climate northern European peoples like the Irish migrants to the US being notorious for "lack of time urgency" and being indifferent farmers. The rural Protestant "Scotch Irish" for example were not known for their farming acumen, though gaining fame for drinking and fighting. Likewise the Catholic Irish, on the opposite end of the spectrum, were heavily an urbanized people that did not go back to the rural peasant conditions from whence they sprang. The (supposedly more virtuous northern European stock) Irish were not sterling role models. and contemporary observers (whom Sowell puts his trust in often) described them as violent, thriftless and often drunk. As far as agriculture, the rural Catholic Irish were unimpressive, relying heavily on easy to cultivate potatoes, with little use of advanced technology, advanced management or diversification. As one history puts it:
For people as poor and as miserable as rural Irish Catholics, sex, the companionship of wives and husbands, and the joy of children, like good and even bad whiskey, were comforts and escapes in a normally hopeless existence. Potatoes also figured heavily in Ireland's population boom. An easy-to- cultivate vegetable that flourished in less than excellent soil, the nutritious potato dominated the rural Irish menu.. Potatoes made it possible to feed many with few resources, encouraging the young to marry and begin large families.."
----Hachey and J. McCaffrey. 2014. The Irish Experience Since 1800: A Concise History. p 29-31
Europeans have no monopoly on "urgency." And who says cold climate paragons had this oh so much greater "sense of urgency" compared to the tropical peoples? Hell, urgency is job one in many tropical agricultural zones which have short growing seasons due to the onset of frequent droughts. Torrential rains leaching nutrients out of already poorer soils also shortens tropical growing seasons with crop damage and flooding. Tropical people had to hustle on the agricultural front before all these negatives piled on. So since when is "urgency" and "discipline" in growing seasons any monopoly of supposedly more virtuous cold climate folk?
Even more interesting, his own research (Ethnic America 1981) shows some major cold climate northern European peoples like the Irish migrants to the US being notorious for "lack of time urgency" and being indifferent farmers. The rural Protestant "Scotch Irish" for example were not known for their farming acumen, though gaining fame for drinking and fighting. Likewise the Catholic Irish, on the opposite end of the spectrum, were heavily an urbanized people that did not go back to the rural peasant conditions from whence they sprang. The (supposedly more virtuous northern European stock) Irish were not sterling role models. and contemporary observers (whom Sowell puts his trust in often) described them as violent, thriftless and often drunk. As far as agriculture, the rural Catholic Irish were unimpressive, relying heavily on easy to cultivate potatoes, with little use of advanced technology, advanced management or diversification. As one history puts it:
For people as poor and as miserable as rural Irish Catholics, sex, the companionship of wives and husbands, and the joy of children, like good and even bad whiskey, were comforts and escapes in a normally hopeless existence. Potatoes also figured heavily in Ireland's population boom. An easy-to- cultivate vegetable that flourished in less than excellent soil, the nutritious potato dominated the rural Irish menu.. Potatoes made it possible to feed many with few resources, encouraging the young to marry and begin large families.."
----Hachey and J. McCaffrey. 2014. The Irish Experience Since 1800: A Concise History. p 29-31
Europeans have no monopoly on "urgency." And who says cold climate paragons had this oh so much greater "sense of urgency" compared to the tropical peoples? Hell, urgency is job one in many tropical agricultural zones which have short growing seasons due to the onset of frequent droughts. Torrential rains leaching nutrients out of already poorer soils also shortens tropical growing seasons with crop damage and flooding. Tropical people had to hustle on the agricultural front before all these negatives piled on. So since when is "urgency" and "discipline" in growing seasons any monopoly of supposedly more virtuous cold climate folk?
Tropical people did not have have time
to sit around with "bananas and pineapples." One can just sense the
obsolete sources the aging Sowell is using, as well as his own failure to assimilate new
data. Six areas of blunt reality of African tropical agriculture illustrate
this. It should ne noted however that these are not be all-end-all "explanations" for the diversity in African agriculture, which includes Nile Valley agriculture not just shifting "jungle" cultivation. These factors include:
--More difficult crop storage
--More devastating and destructive pests
--Greater chance of severe droughts and flooding
--Lower fertility of tropical soils
--Fluctuating growing seasons
--Erratic weather with more famine threat
The above do not apply to ALL tropical areas, at ALL times. Obviously there was variation, and areas of differing fertility, water access and pest infestation, etc. Areas with rich volcanic soil for example, fared better than areas of rain-leached laterite soils. However even given this variation, there was no "easy" time in general, on the average, when it came to agriculture in the tropics, contrary to the claims of assorted "HBD" adherents. Crop storage for example, is more challenging in the tropics- there being
no natural refrigerant of snow and ice to help. Sure, people of the northern climes could spend more time on food preservation, they had a more favorable climate and a lesser pest burden to indulge with that time. Not so in the tropic African climes- which by the way include much desert. Another key issue is pest burden. Tropical Africans worked hard to fight off a massive series of pests- pests that did not die off during the
winter season as in the more favorable European temperate and cold-climate zones- which were hardly the picture of unmitigated "harshness" painted by many. For the laboring African farmer, this meant
elaborate storage pits and silos, not as large as the barns of northern Europe to be sure, but quite reasonable in local context.
And with no natural refrigerant close at hand, tropical
Africans had to hustle to process their crops into a form survivable under hot,
humid conditions, and the next drought-induced famine threat. Root crops for
example- a key staple- have to be pounded into flour or paste, dried and
stored, as did the "bananas" and other starchy staples. If stored
whole, storage bins and silos had to be carefully designed so crops could
"cure" properly and not be destroyed by the heat and fungal
infection. In some cases toxic poisons had to be removed from staple crops-
like cassava (manioc) before it could be eaten. And stored foods had to be
checked frequently to guard against spoilage amid the heat and pests. But even with
storage systems some food had to be eaten quickly. There was no time for "ease"
with "bananas and pineapples." Urgent work was needed under the rainfall
regime- with quick growing crops alternated with longer term ones in a
continual struggle to keep the food flowing before the next drought, or
nutrient leaching torrential rain.
Grain
staples of more fertile Eurasian soils by contrast, have relatively lower
moisture content at maturity, and long term storage is easier.
Again, there was variation, with some tropical farmers in some areas having a better situation, but overall, where is this so called "easy"
life led by tropical Africans, that racial hereditarians allege?
Spontaneous nonsense: To recap- Tropical peoples in Africa had plenty of work requiring "urgency" and "discipline"
with no time to wait around for Sowell's laughable food,
"spontaneously" supplied by nature. Tropical Africans have never
enjoyed all this "spontaneous" food right-wingers allege. As one
expert puts it: "environmental conditions are
frequently restrictive and fragile. Most tropical soils have low fertility due
to water erosion, leaching, and acidification in more humid climates and to high
temperatures and wind soil erosion in dryer ones (Bennema, 1977; Lal and
Miller, 1990). Warm humid and subhumid regions are exposed to explosive pest
populations, flooding, and crop storage and transportation problems (National
Research Council, 1993), while semiarid regions suffer frequently from
prolonged droughts (Okigbo, 1990)."
(--John H. Vandermeer - 2002 Tropical Agroecosystems - Page
12)
A European tale of woe? Hardly.. The temperate zones are hardly areas of dire starvation and distress. For one thing the temperate zone has a favorable East-West climatic axis allowing easy movement of key plant and animal domesticates, from wheat, to horses. It also has more fertile soils than the tropics, (even though some growing seasons were short), snow melt irrigation, lesser pest problems due to the cold that kills numerous pests, etc, etc. All such things often allow multiple crops in a single season- a favorable food environment actually. And who says things are so "dire" in temperate zones?
Temperate growing seasons can last as long as 8 months per year, depending on
annual temperature and elevation. Along the southern coast of California
Urgency? What urgency? Many tropical farmers are experts on "urgency." As far as poor soils for example- tropical farmers adapted the
reasonable method of shifting cultivation- which again, required considerable
hustle in land clearing, planting, harvesting and then moving, to stay ahead of declining
soil fertility and in many areas, inevitable dry and wet season drought and flooding. But African shifting cultivators did not simply "plant and move." They managed their plots in a rational, sophisticated way, including use of green and animal manures, terracing, soil mounding, increased labor inputs for such tasks as weeding, and carefully mixing a variety of crops (some maturing at different times) to aid in pest control, stretch out fertility, and spread the economic risks leading up to the harvest. This detailed management was necessary, for the tropical African farmer not only has
"jungle", sweltering savannah and even desert to deal with, but an explosive number of pests and parasites
hindering his enterprise, much more than the temperate farmer, who is blessed with winters that kill off numerous pests, and more predictable snow-melt water for irrigation from higher altitudes. And on top of the
hindrances caused by drought and its opposite- torrential rain and floodings - huge parts of tropical Africa also include deserts, and growing seasons in
deserts are very short, much shorter than the European temperate zone seasons enjoyed by
"urgent" farmers there. As one source notes- "Famines can be
traced to such erratic weather patterns as high (causing floods) and low
(causing droughts) precipitation in climate zones that otherwise would be expected
to produce successful crop yields... Yet climatic and especially rain
variability makes tropical agriculture often a risky business, and many famines
in the tropics are related to drought." The racialist would attribute
problems with overcoming frequent tropical famines to
"genetic deficits" but such simpleton reasonings fail to capture the
realities of farming and climate in many tropic areas.
Did all the above difficulties apply to ALL areas of tropics in Africa
at ALL times? Of course not. There were zones that could be more favorable- on
mountain slopes blessed with plenteous rain and volcano-fed soil for example.
But the general pattern in tropical Africa is not
"easy natives" with "bananas and pineapples" and food "spontaneously" springing up, but a blunt
regime of backbreaking work, urgency, discipline and deft management, to stay ahead of an often unfavorable
environment. Even given areas where grain could be grown, as yet another
example, the climate in humid tropical areas also means that significant loss
of seed weight- and thus less yield to the African farmer. Given readily
available facts on such matters, why do so many people persist in distorting
and misrepresenting the real picture on the ground? Simple. Such cynical
misrepresentation and distortion provides the ideological foundations of a
right-wing "libertarian" or "HBD" project. This project may
vary by person, group or place, but its heart is race, and cynically
disparaging and distorting the history, culture and achievements of tropical
peoples, particularly Africans. Enablers like Sowell, even if they are not joined at the hip with specific racialists,
help along this project.
Photosynthesis- a basic chemical process more difficult in the supposedly "easy" tropics
"The tropics and sub-tropics are deceptive—the lands, as Marston Bates noted, "where winter never comes."2 It would seem, given soil and water, that one could grow almost anything. In fact, photosynthesis, the chemical process in which chlorophyl uses visible light to produce carbohydrates out of water and carbon dioxide, is distributed across space and time differentially.3 On the equator, each day has twelve hours of light and twelve hours of darkness. In the mid-latitudes this characteristic division of day and night occurs only twice each year (on March 21 and September 23). In the summer of the hemisphere there is much more daylight and nights are short. Photosynthesis occurs in the presence of light and thus proceeds longer each day (up to several hours longer) during the summer in mid-latitudes than occurs each day at the equator. (See Figure 2-1.) Greater photosynthesis translates directly into higher yields.
A further advantage is caused by contrasts between the tropics and mid-latitudes regarding dark respiration (the loss at night of photosynthetic material created during daylight). Dark respiration rates are high if nighttime temperatures are high—a more common feature of lowland tropics than mid-latitude lands. Dark respiration losses can be regarded as a tax on photosynthetic biomass production— and, in a general sense, that tax is 20 to 30 percent in the mid-latitudes, and up to 50 percent in the tropics.4 The net effect of these latitudinal differences is that crops that can be grown in a four- to six-month period (e.g., maize, wheat, sorghum, soybeans, and cotton) will have higher yields than their counterparts grown in the tropics."
---Cotton, Colonialism, and Social History in Sub-Saharan Africa (Allen Isaacman Richard Roberts) pp. 44-47
I know what you are thinking pilgrim. What about the "easy" tropical or sub-tropical agriculture enjoyed by the dusky natives of the Nile Valley in Africa?
This is a variant of the "easy tropical life" narrative favored by the "hereditarian" and right-wing crowd. At first glance, the Nile Valley seems a perfect case. Why all the natives had to do was wait for the waters to rise, throw some seeds in the rich silt, do some minor weeding, and retire to drink beer (or eat pineapples and bananas) until harvest. Alas, this variant of the narrative is bogus, like the rest. Far from being "easy", even in the favored Nile Valley, agriculture was hard work. The land had to be prepared, plowed and tilled and divided into basins-(decrue or basin agriculture, a technique often seen in other parts of Africa). Canals, levees and dams had to be dug, constructed and maintained to capture the flood waters in the basins. Spillways and canals had to be made and maintained to siphon off excess water as the flood receded. And the whole system had to be calibrated carefully, including water levels and seasonal indicators such as the positioning of various astronomical data to ensure a smooth planting season. Failure to be prepared, could mean hunger or starvation. Note how scholar Bruce Trigger above says that the mere silt of the Nile was not the only key to farming. Nile silt yielded a modest level of nutrients, INITIALLY. What kept Egyptian fields in business was fallow periods, crop rotation, and the manure of tens of thousands of farm animals, managed for just that purpose, among others. Oh and on top of all this, there were quite a few building projects going on.. In short, it was mostly backbreaking work, even with the Nile inundation. Where is this "easy" time for tropical Africans assorted racialists and their apologists keep talking about?
There was no "easy time" to be had in the agriculture of the ancient Nile Valley of Africa, and 15-16% of Egypt lies in the topical belt by the way, with overlap of tropical Africans and cultures into the sub-tropics. Unsurprisingly, many right-wingers seem to think that Africans are static folk, huddled conveniently behind some sort of fixed, climatic "apartheid" barrier. But alas, this mythology does not hold. Africans DO move around- from sub-tropics to tropics, and within those tropics are numerous diverse micro-climes. The hot dry air of deserts within the tropics for example easily yields narrow noses. No "race mix" is needed or invoked to explain away such routine human variation. So much for "easy" tropical narratives...
Given a continual white propaganda drumbeat of lazy natives lolling in the sun drinking beer, or "static" native development, the section below covers the following points:
(1) demonstrating that tropical African farming methods or tech choices within localized disease or poor-soil environments like that of the tsetse fly were often very rational and logical, not simply "backward,"
(2) European farming worked few miracles in tropical Africa but relied heavily on African coerced labor {including slavery and child kidnapping) to do almost all the heavy lifting,
3) Rural Africans experienced a culture shock/clash, particularly in adapting traditional ways to the rhythms of European industrial and quasi-industrial methods and regimes of punishment and discipline. But this is not much different from the "lazy" white rural English or "brutish" white Irish proletariat having to adapt to such "advanced" or "beneficial" results as land enclosures, brutal workhouses, piecework exploitation, rampant over-crowding and disease in fetid slums, massive substance abuse, exploitative child labor, heavy environmental pollution and degradation, etc. Africans had further to go, but are not unique in struggles to adapt to or resist such foreign "beneficence."
Given the continual drumbeat about the benefits of "white civilization," from the standpoint of the dispossessed native corralled in his over-crowded and eroded "native reserve" exactly who was "benefitting"? Forcing the natives to grow certain cash crops for example, helped the tax, customs and cash coffers of colonial regimes, but also in some areas, caused famine and malnutrition as native food crops were displaced. While not all European influence was negative, once again wonders, who was "benefitting?"
Given the continual drumbeat about the benefits of "white civilization," from the standpoint of the dispossessed native corralled in his over-crowded and eroded "native reserve" exactly who was "benefitting"? Forcing the natives to grow certain cash crops for example, helped the tax, customs and cash coffers of colonial regimes, but also in some areas, caused famine and malnutrition as native food crops were displaced. While not all European influence was negative, once again wonders, who was "benefitting?"
(4) European technology like the plow often made an indifferent showing in specific African environments. What's the point of the plow for example given tsetse decimated draft animals, or thin soils where the plow might simply turn up even WORST soil below the initial thin one, not to mention induce more erosion in some places? European successes sometimes were due not to mere new technology, but deployment of more coerced labor inputs over a wider area, including the heavy lifting of land clearance, done by Africans.
(5) African farmers could and did adapt to things like the European plow and produce a native peasantry using such implements, that at times was turning out a productive surplus for trade. t. See Elizbeth Eldgedge 1993) A South African_kingdom__the_pursuit_of_security_in_nineteenth-century_Lesotho) on Lesotho, or Colin Bundy (1972) The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry) on South Africa), or Beinart (1987 Hidden Struggles in Rura South Africa). In numerous cases however, whites, who continually pushed the propaganda narrative of static, lazy natives, moved to shut down or throttle native advances using such tools as coerced labor or land confiscation and alienation, as in South Africa's infamous "Native Land Act" of 1913)
(6) Some European farmers are less than impressive considering all their advantages enjoyed, particularly groups like the white Boers, who were oft criticized by the English.
(7) The introduction of things like new agricultural implements runs up against white attempts in crippling African adoption of the new technology. Land confiscation, particularly in Southern Africa, seized almost all arable land, and relegation of the bleks to eroded, over-crowded "native reserves" meant arrested deployment. Furthermore the bleks were typically limited to small plots of land while it was not uncommon for white individuals, families, organizations, or corporations to be given thousands of acres of crop and pasture land. Sharecropping and other arrangements for more native land access were hindered by white restrictions.
Some white mission groups did positive work, and easily acquired large tracts of 1,000 to 2,000 morgen (approx 2 acres per morgen), which they tried to divvy up into small, subsistence plots for converts, while serving as a 'labour reserve' for white settlers and farmers. The infamous 1894 Glen Gray Act for example, limited individual African farmers to 4-morgen about 8 acres, too small for subsistence on farming alone, but small enough to disenfranchise black property owners for voting "qualification." While blacks were being fobbed off with 8-acre plots and ravaged native 'reserves', the 1912 Land Settlement, passed by the Parliament of South Africa, laid out provisions for the sale of state land to whites. In just 4 years after, some 210 farms covering a total area of 168,636 hectares was given to white farmers. The math is not hard: this amounts to some 808 hectares or approx 1,996 acres per white farmer. Thus, ironically, the vaunted claim of bringing benefits to Africans, was itself often debunked by white attempts to restrict widespread African use of the vaunted new technical resources like plows.
Tax burden was no winner. In addition to previous hut, poll and other taxes, the 1920s Hertzog regime even imposed new taxes on cotton blankets and second-hand clothing, items heavily used by poor blacks. The Gray Act also imposed additional levies on the natives with little admin representation, allowing white functionaries to get further paid off black taxes. Blacks were not getting ao-called "free money" from anybody.
(8) Furthermore the brutality of white culture to its own white peoples must have made claims of bringing "benefits" to the natives seem a bitter joke, and adds alternative perspective to European complaints about unstable, lazy, "untrustworthy" and "indolent" native labor. Labour stability was a legitimate concern, but white statistics were hardly better in various eras. For example, almost 25% of the white sailors of the British Navy were in a state of desertion in some eras. (Wiki "Impressment"). None less than Admiral Horatio Nelson reported that between 1793 and 1803, some 42,000 British seamen deserted. The white French and Dutch posted even worse stats- with annual desertion rates of 90% not uncommon.
Contrary to modern and past propaganda depicting Afrikaners as innocuous, peaceful pioneers acting in self-defense, the Boers were a ruthless, predatory force unleashed on African communities, seizing land, cattle, attacking African communities, kidnapping women and children, and making massive numbers of black slaves. How does kidnapping women and children for slavery constitute "self-defense?" Boer leader Paul Kruger himself owner 13 different farms, where many of his black servitors toiled at subsistence levels. Even after the 1902-1903 Boer War, their lands were mostly restored and they got millions of pounds sterling in rebuild assistance. Whatever British racism itself at the time and its colonial domination, one practical result is that it put a check on Boer predation and abuses, including ending slavery. Joseph Chamberlain, British Secretary of State For The Colonies, in the 1890s, stipulated that explicitly race-based laws would be vetoed by the British government, increasingly forcing local white discriminators and settlers to implement substantial subterfuge and deception, when naked abuse was too visible. Black leaders like Moshesh or Khama much preferred British rule, to Boer. Among civilians, white travelers saw numerous abuses in Southern Africa. One reported black children tied to wagon wheel by a Boer, and brutally whipped with the sjambok, rhino-hide whip. Another report notes a white woman wielding a huge whip, hovering to intimidate and punish African tobacco workers (Comaroff 2006) Labour migrants to Namidia faced cheating and brutal treatment, even as the German overlords pursued a merciless genocidal war.
Documentation from the abolition of slavery debates at the Cape tells a dismal tale of widespread Boer abuses. One of the reasons for the angry trek of Boers from the Cape is their resentment at British attempts to restrict abuses against "their" natives. Away from prying eyes, abuses continued. The paragons of rugged individual "self-sufficiency," Boer frontiersmen, attempted to coerce tribes like the Rolong into laboring for whites, by seizing water fountains and invading pastures, and plundering their cattle. White settlers also continually "impounded" so much so-called "stray" African cattle that even white colonial government officials expressed concern over abuses. Exorbitant fees were charged for release of said "strays" and Africans were "encouraged" to get loans from white traders to pay fees, locking in debt traps on them.
Nor does the pay front inspire confidence. The British Navy for example was sometimes up to two years in arrears for pay to its white sailors, and for almost 150 years, from 1653 to 1797, navy pay remained unchanged. European currency (despite missionary efforts) to "teach civilization" to the "bleks" could also fall short. White traders sometimes passed off fake rix (Cape Colony) dollars to illiterate natives. Africans' initial attempts to gain from diamonds discovered were shut down by white regimes, and Africans were forbidden to stake mineral claims. All such "improvements" were reserved for whites. (Comaroff 2006. Beasts_banknotes_and_the_colour of_money)
Nor were white societal examples necessarily "beneficial." The 1700s and 1800s in England saw massive gin liquor problems among whites, which killed and addicted tens of thousands and caused huge productivity losses on white English factories and farms. When such conditions associated with Europeans' technological and economic systems reached the Africans, including slavery, one wonders about the vaunted "improvements" and "civilization" being brought to the natives.
Afrikaner antisemitism was rife, including sympathies with antisemitic German and Nazi regimes. Jews were disliked and Afrikaners sought to hinder them. For example, despite their calls for more white settlement, many Afrikaner leaders sought Jewish exclusion. Various racial "scientific" formulas, linked said Jews with vile Negroes and Hottentots. A number of White demographers, medical experts and government officials fretted over the "infestations" of lower class Jews, harbingers of disease, who indeed were not the right type of white, and whose degenerate status could only "lower the prestige" of Europeans in the eyes of the native and coloured classes. Said Jews were also seen as a "parasitic" class, that did no "real" work, but were only out to "milk" more productive Nordic peoples. (Hodes and Reznek (2023) The intertwining of antisemitism and racism in modern South Africa) These undesirables were discriminated against in SA immigration, and Boer (and some English) leaders and influencers urged immigration only of purer Nordic stock. Whether South Africa's Jews welcomed such supposed "benefits" or arguments is unknown.
European agricultural technology unimpressive on many counts until relatively late, and African alternatives were more workable given specific local environments.
But you say pilgrim, weren't those Africans inefficient with their hoe agriculture compared to advanced European technology such as plows? Not necessarily. First, African agriculture is not merely slash and burn (rational in relative environmental context) but also included mixed field operations including crop rotation, manuring and fallowing periods. And as we have already seen, some northern Europeans made heavy use of "inefficient" tools, like the Irish with their small spade-like loy in cultivating marginal hilly land for their potato crop. Turns out that this "backward" tool was MORE efficient for the Irish than expensive, and cumbersome plow teams, as we shall see. Second, European agricultural tech often lagged behind that of Asia (China in particular) as Professor Joseph Needham's magisterial surveys of Chinese technology show, and European techniques included a hugely inefficient plow and plowing system that required the plow team to stop every few minutes to knock clods of dirt off plow instruments. European systems also typically required a large team of animals, sometimes horses and oxen combined. It was slow, expensive and cumbersome, and until further advances in the 1700s and 1800s was unimpressive compared to more agile African farming systems using hoe, direct seed implantation, basin irrigation, soil management like terracing and mounding, and mixed cropping (Precolonial African Industry and the Atlantic Trade, 1500-1800 - John Thornton 1990. African Econ Hist 19.) Even more inefficient and wasteful was the European method of broadcasting seed over the fields rather than more detailed placement in the earth. See Needham- reference above. By contrast the "backward" African farming technique of raking and raising mounds with hoes and then inserting seed directly in the earth, rather than throwing them far and wide as in the Euro "broadcast" system, compared favorably. Thus when the whole picture is considered, European agricultural methods and technology were not only sometimes unimpressive on the merits, but within the tropical African environment would compare unfavorably to indigenous methods.
But you say pilgrim, weren't those Africans inefficient with their hoe agriculture compared to advanced European technology such as plows? Not necessarily. First, African agriculture is not merely slash and burn (rational in relative environmental context) but also included mixed field operations including crop rotation, manuring and fallowing periods. And as we have already seen, some northern Europeans made heavy use of "inefficient" tools, like the Irish with their small spade-like loy in cultivating marginal hilly land for their potato crop. Turns out that this "backward" tool was MORE efficient for the Irish than expensive, and cumbersome plow teams, as we shall see. Second, European agricultural tech often lagged behind that of Asia (China in particular) as Professor Joseph Needham's magisterial surveys of Chinese technology show, and European techniques included a hugely inefficient plow and plowing system that required the plow team to stop every few minutes to knock clods of dirt off plow instruments. European systems also typically required a large team of animals, sometimes horses and oxen combined. It was slow, expensive and cumbersome, and until further advances in the 1700s and 1800s was unimpressive compared to more agile African farming systems using hoe, direct seed implantation, basin irrigation, soil management like terracing and mounding, and mixed cropping (Precolonial African Industry and the Atlantic Trade, 1500-1800 - John Thornton 1990. African Econ Hist 19.) Even more inefficient and wasteful was the European method of broadcasting seed over the fields rather than more detailed placement in the earth. See Needham- reference above. By contrast the "backward" African farming technique of raking and raising mounds with hoes and then inserting seed directly in the earth, rather than throwing them far and wide as in the Euro "broadcast" system, compared favorably. Thus when the whole picture is considered, European agricultural methods and technology were not only sometimes unimpressive on the merits, but within the tropical African environment would compare unfavorably to indigenous methods.
Blacks did much of the heavy lifting- that is, huge coerced inputs from free, or very cheap labor applied- advanced technology like plows not necessarily decisive. Europeans were often unimpressive when they came directly to tropical African agriculture despite massive advantages. The most extensive area of European settlement, South Africa, is outside the full brunt of the tropical zone, making for an easier time. But even here the bulk of the heavy lifting was done by the black natives. This point is important in view of triumphalist narratives suggesting that blacks had little to do with progress- only the heroism of European "pioneers" supposedly bringing new light counts.
The prototypical beacons of progress, the Boers, generally shied away from the harsh lifting needed for agriculture and "went native" - that is, they relied heavily on pastoralism, herding cattle and sheep, using slaves extensively, (including much coerced child labor), again, with someone else doing the heavy lifting. Slave emancipation sparked angry separatist trekking away when the British government suggested that, hell, maybe just perhaps people wanted their freedom in line with the rest of the empire. Post-slavery Boer regimes attempted to still lock in the hapless bleks for white advantage, hence the creation of land-poor, marginal "native reserves." The 1913 "Native Land Act" for example reserved about 85-90 percent of the land for whites- with bleks, who had a much larger population, granted the pitiful reminder. Those allowed to work on white farms could be offered terms for pennies on the dollar; setting up homestead shacks, or running a few head of cattle or sheep, in addition to often paying rent. Black adults often had to also contract up their children or other family members for labor, another source of white profit. Says one study:
For the tenant community of over 550 people on this farm suffered both rent in cash and exactions of labour service. Indeed, on the estate, "each adult Native" - which invariably meant each African man ( and possibly each married man) - had to pay a rent of thirty shillings a year. But, in addition to this, "two small boys" had to be sent to labour for Van Der Walt "every month" as well.
[Says one black tenant:]
"I was sick and tired of being allocated a field and then being evicted once it had been cultivated and the soil proved fertile. You were chased away as soon as they discovered that you could produce a good harvest from soil that had previously been considered useless. You tamed the land and they got rid of you."
(FROM: Van Onselen, C. (1996). The Seed Is Mine: The Life of Kas Maine, A South Africa Sharecropper 1894-1985, New York: Hill and Wang, p.409.)
In addition to local black labor, historian Phimister (1988:223) also notes: “From 1947 onwards, white farmers were once again cushioned by the labour of thousands of foreign workers recruited from Nyasaland and Mozambique.”
White settlers of English background also moved to maximize advantages, with many of them filing in agriculture and having to retreat to urban settings where they practiced trade. The English were generally suspicious of the Boers:
White settlers of English background also moved to maximize advantages, with many of them filing in agriculture and having to retreat to urban settings where they practiced trade. The English were generally suspicious of the Boers:
"..justifiable fear as this was after the Anglo-Boer War of 1899-1902 which was perceived in colonial Zimbabwe to have been a war fought to prevent Afrikaner domination of British settlers in South Africa. Migration to Southern Rhodesia was thus suspected to be a ploy by Afrikaner leaders to settle a significant number of Afrikaners in the territory with the motive of dominating it over time. Culturally Afrikaners were seen as inferior. As early as 1903, the Rhodesian Surveyor –General wrote that he opposed a situation where any white person who had financial resources to purchase land in the colony was afforded the opportunity as this would attract “a number of undesirables like the „bywoner" [Boer] class, who would form a compact, bigoted and nonprogressive class” (Mlambo 2000)."
In short, white settler agriculture depended heavily on the blacks and on into the 20th century, depended for survival on heavy government subsidies, not the rugged, independent "free market" models of myth. Despite much talk of "getting the Kaffirs to use better methods", whites continually throttled black opportunity, all the while receiving massive subsidies and assistance to do agriculture.
In 1930, one African farming association leader said:
"complained that £207,000 of public spending had been allocated to agricultural education for whites, whereas ‘nothing [had been set aside] for the Bantu who were called upon to pay for their corresponding training out of their own pockets’.91 One of the KVNFA’s most pressing demands was the establishment of an agricultural school in the Ciskei that would be analogous to Tsolo in the Transkei. The association pointed out that the five white agricultural colleges had produced 2,682 graduates by 1919, but only twenty-six young men had graduated from Tsolo by the same year.."
"In addition, the [Bantu] SANFC constantly reminded the government that African farmers lacked the capital to invest in or improve their land and were struggling to ‘make ends meet’ given the high prices of new farm implements and provisions.117 Their agricultural tools were often outdated and unfit for purpose, while the fencing necessary to allow for winter planting was unaffordable.118 As Black farmers were not eligible for obtaining credit from the state-run Land Bank, which exclusively catered to white farmers, undercapitalization was a serious problem. The SANFC thus demanded from the government the same subsidies for seed, fertilizer, and transport that their white counterparts received.119"
FROM: Cultivating Race -black agriculturel transformations in South Africa- Julia Tischler-2012
But no amount of education, demonstrations, technology or progressive boosterism could overcome the final white barrier to black progress, denial of land access.
"The infamous NLA of 1913 not only imposed legal limits to the area in which Africans could own land, but also prohibited sharecropping or cash renting on white-owned farms.114 In an address on the state of African agriculture, Jabavu deplored the fact that ‘the land ploughed by location individuals’ was ‘far too small to provide a living’.115
FROM: Cultivating Race -black agricultural transformations in South Africa- Julia Tischler-2012
BREEZY CLAIMS ABOUT "BLACK AFRICA" MISS AN IMPORTANT POINT. "BLACK AFRICA" EXTENDS INTO NUBIA AND EGYPT. Every credible anthropological study shows that the closest relation to the Egyptians are the Nubians. Population patterns don't "limit" blacks to "Nubia", but also go into Egypt, beyond the Nubians, who themselves were ensconced in today's Egypt, which is itself, partly tropical.
Did "backward" tropical Africans "miss out" on technology such as the plow? But wait you say. Even if some European technology was unimpressive, or outside Europe, ineffective in many tropical environments, how is it that black Africans never developed the demonstrably more efficient plow until Arabs or Europeans showed up? Such arguments and associated variants, are dubious for several reasons.
1) First, "Black Africa" would have to include not only "sub-Saharan" Ethiopia, but large swathes of the Sudan, and the Egyptian Nile Valley including large pieces of Egypt and Nubia. Nubia by the way in ancient times, actually was made up of a slice of today's Egypt, as far as Aswan in southern Egypt. Then there were the foundational Egyptian populations such as the Badari, who not only how many linkages with other Africans (as anthropological data repeatedly show- (Keita 2005, Pinhasi and Stock 2011 et al.), but said Badarians, using a mixed farming system, for their time, actually produced one of the highest population densities in the whole NE African and Middle Eastern region- QUOTE:
"Archaeological evidence suggests that the Badarian civilization had higher population density than did any other contemporaneous civilizations." (Gabriel, 1987, Hassan 1988)." --Pinhasi and Stock 2011. Human Bioarchaelogy of the Transition to Agriculture.
And the people most closest ethnically to the Egyptians as most credible scholars show were, wait for it, Nubians, who are just another variant of African diversity. So there were "black Africans" in place for millennia in the Nile Valley, Nubia and Egypt, foundational populations, going from prehistoric into historic times, who were on the cutting edge as far as productive agriculture, and who were using things like the plow. The Nubians are also the people ethnically closest to the Egyptians, (Yurco 1989, Godde 2009 et al), and in both Nubia and Egypt, there were plenty of plows in use in ancient times.
2) Second, even if Nubia and Egypt were excluded, there is still the use of the plow long BEFORE Arabs or Europeans showed up in Ethiopia and the southern Nilotic Sudan, which, (many people seem unable or unwilling to grasp this fact), ARE in "sub-Saharan" Africa. It is thus bogus to speak about "sub-Saharan" Africa lacking the plow.
"Archaeological evidence suggests that the Badarian civilization had higher population density than did any other contemporaneous civilizations." (Gabriel, 1987, Hassan 1988)." --Pinhasi and Stock 2011. Human Bioarchaelogy of the Transition to Agriculture.
And the people most closest ethnically to the Egyptians as most credible scholars show were, wait for it, Nubians, who are just another variant of African diversity. So there were "black Africans" in place for millennia in the Nile Valley, Nubia and Egypt, foundational populations, going from prehistoric into historic times, who were on the cutting edge as far as productive agriculture, and who were using things like the plow. The Nubians are also the people ethnically closest to the Egyptians, (Yurco 1989, Godde 2009 et al), and in both Nubia and Egypt, there were plenty of plows in use in ancient times.
2) Second, even if Nubia and Egypt were excluded, there is still the use of the plow long BEFORE Arabs or Europeans showed up in Ethiopia and the southern Nilotic Sudan, which, (many people seem unable or unwilling to grasp this fact), ARE in "sub-Saharan" Africa. It is thus bogus to speak about "sub-Saharan" Africa lacking the plow.
3) Third, as already demonstrated earlier, plows need certain conditions to make them worth the effort compared to available alternatives. Attempting European-style plowing systems, and "seed broadcast" techniques on thin tropical forest or savannah soils would have been an exercise in the ludicrous. In addition, European plow technology and use, and sowing methods, until comparatively recent times were often inefficient, and unimpressive.
4) Fourth, plow teams require large numbers of healthy draft animals. In many areas of the continent, pests like the tsetse fly decimated domesticated load-bearing animals, as well as people, though over centuries in some limited areas, resistant breeds developed. Some cultures prized cattle, just as fishing cultures in Europe continued to look to the sea for a living, but for Africans, expansion of farming or even herding operations into tsetse infested bush had to be weighed against other options. What's the point of pushing so-called "advanced" plow methods if the tsetse fly would decimate your draft animals, and attack available workers with sleeping sickness? Limiting farming expansion or even stock-raising into pest-ridden areas was a reasonable, rational option given problems at hand. just as plague-ridden areas in Europe were avoided or quarantined.
5) Fifth, many tropical African soils while obviously varying from place to place, suffered from thinness or declining quality- that is mostly only the topsoil was fertile in the short-run, a condition exacerbated by heavy rainfall periods that leached away nutrients once the initial seasons of fresh clearance and ash fertilizer were completed. After that it was downhill- hence the use of shifting "slash and burn" systems in many areas to stay ahead of dropping fertility, although Africans also used other methods like mulching, terracing, fallowing, manuring, etc. to the same ends in favorable spaces. Specific crop mixes in different areas also improved productivity, hence widespread intercropping to spread risks and better utilize available soils. But Aside from the limitations soils imposed on the productivity of many crops. and aside from the diseases that crippled draft animals, declining topsoil made plow agriculture a poor choice in many areas as the plows would only turn up the poorer soil below the increasingly depleted top layer. As one analysis puts it: "The problem was that in most regions of pre-colonial Africa the soil nutrients were concentrated in the topsoil. This meant that the good soil was vulnerable to erosion, and its fertility was severely depleted when the land was exposed to wind28 and heavy rain. Another problem was that the thin topsoil made plough agriculture inefficient, because turning up the soil with a plough would bring the less fertile soils to the surface. This is one reason why the plough was used in only a few regions of pre-colonial Africa." (Frankema et al, 2023. The History of African Development- 2023-AEHN pp 27-28).
Thus Africans that supposedly "failed" to develop or use European plowing systems were not "irrational" or "backward." To the contrary their choice could be and was a quite logical one given local environments. Europeans themselves worked no miracles in tropical African agriculture.
Thus Africans that supposedly "failed" to develop or use European plowing systems were not "irrational" or "backward." To the contrary their choice could be and was a quite logical one given local environments. Europeans themselves worked no miracles in tropical African agriculture.
6) Sixth for technology to be efficiently adopted, it must be applied rationally in existing environments. As noted above, many tropical African environments also hindered use of wheeled transport, particularly pre-colonial West Africa, though wheeled vehicles are depicted from ancient times at Tondia, near Goundam, south of Timbuktu in today's Mali, and possibly at Kourki south of the Niger bend in the Republic of Niger (Law 1973). Some scholars note that the tsetse fly belt which its debilitating effect on load-bearing draft animals, and the presence of terrain such as jungle or brush make extensive use of wheeled conveyances inefficient or impractical. One Old Calabar ruler in today's Nigeria for example imported a European style carriage but all the draft horses to pull it died. They had to be replaced with men. The problem of expense and impracticality is illustrated also by the gift of a European carriage to the ruler of Asante in precolonial times, which required the construction of new roads though brush or jungle terrain, including building of new bridges to cross streams, with a final obstacle: inability of the vehicle to move through narrow streets in the capital city, requiring new streets to be made. Practical and economic considerations to the use of various technologies are not unique to Africa. Scholar R.W Bulliett notes that wheeled vehicles declined and became uncommon throughout the entire Middle East early during early medieval times, as people adopted cheaper, more rational solutions in the form of pack animals such as camels.[(Robin Law (1976). "Horses, Firearms, and Political Power in Pre-Colonial West Africa, Past and Present". Past and Present. 72 (1): 112–132.)
It should be obvious common sense to the intelligent reader by now that Africans, like peoples elsewhere made the same sorts of rational calculation about the deployment of technology. The Romans used pack camels to cross North African desert terrain for example, not allegedly "advanced" wheeled carts from Italy that would quickly break down. Likewise the Africans of Ancient Egypt deployed wooden sleds for moving massive blocks of stone to their massive tomb and temple construction sites, a technological choice infinitely more rational than supposedly "advanced" wheeled carts or conveyances that would either crack under the weight or bog down in sandy soils. Alas, double standards and hypocrisy show more than common sense among assorted self-styled "racial experts" on Africans such as "hereditarian" "experts" like Lynn, Vanhaven et al noted above.
Ahoy chaps! Ready for some Non-cold climate agriculture and
general drudgery here in tropical Australia?
general drudgery here in tropical Australia?
Climate- a convenient justification for slavery.
But pilgrim you say aha! Given that the tropics were a difficult environment doesn't this explain slavery? "Urgent" white people could not work in the tropical heat, so presto- we got Africans, a tropical people, for a perfect solution! This is a classic justification for slavery that some textbooks and scholars hint at even to this day- like David Landes in Wealth and Poverty of Nations (1999). But this too is dubious. First American plantation slavery falls OUTSIDE the tropical zone, and Europeans did intense agriculture when they had to, in the sweltering semi-tropics of Florida, Georgia, the Carolinas, etc. The problem was not "climate" but getting a cheap labor force you can brutalize and bludgeon for centuries, across multiple generations, for pennies on the dollar, to do the heavy lifting and even some of the associated skilled work.
Second, white convicts, indentured servants and settlers managed in the tropics when they had to, as shown in Australia, Barbados, and thousands of European small farmers in various tropical locales of South America. It was not "climate" but again, the opportunity to bludgeon, brutalize and relentlessly exploit a multi-generational captive labor force at relatively little cost, compared to the reluctant white setters, convicts and indentured servants of Australia, the Caribbean, South America, and the southern US, who when they had to, managed just fine in the tropical and near-tropical zones. The "climate factor" does not let folk off the hook for slavery.
But what about the allegedly "harsh" cold climate Europe, that led to supposed "evolutionary" advances in all sorts of wonderful things? That trope turns out to be rather dubious- things were on balance quite favorable..
Two items of scholarship will suffice below to debunk much of the propaganda put forward in support of the "harsh cold clime" line. First, in the historic era when all was supposedly "nasty and
brutish," Europe was actually quite favored
environmentally. Alleged "harsh" environments are less than
advertised. Second, in the PRE-HISTORIC era, alleged "harshness" is
also dubious. If anything, the temperate zone was quite favorable to humans on
several counts, more so than in Africa. Even the northern reaches of "Nordic" territory had plenty of fishing and aquatic
resources in place,, as we shall see. But let's start with the historic era.
Historic era- favorable conditions not "life-threatening"- As one scholar says about Europe of
the 5th century - QUOTE:
"Some of the most important lay in nature itself: a
reasonably good climate, rich soils,
broad rivers, and accessible coastlines. As Map 2.1 shows, the Western European
heartland consists of a huge plain of rich soil that fans north from the Pyrenees
and the Alps into England France Germany Scandinavia . Its weather varies greatly but is
generally bracing without being intimidating- a happy compromise between
languid, narcotic mildness of southern California and the freezing winters of
Maine Northwestern Europe's dependable year-round rainfall an the fertile soils
of its numerous river valleys encouraged agricultural productivity, so much so
that a first-century Greek geographer could describe the region as 'producing
in perfection all the fruits of the earth necessary for life.'
.. The climate
was kind to farmers in Western Europe , but so too was
the land. Crossing the European heartland are several low, mineral-rich
mountain ranges, a broad swathe of rich loam for farming, and a remarkable
network of broad rivers fed by year-round rains. These rivers connected inland
settlements with the sea and with each other, moving people, news, goods and
ideas. Most of Europe 's major cities were built on
riverbanks- Paris London Milan Cologne Europe 's
long, irregular coastline was a further stimulus to commerce, with not only its
huge bays and peninsulas, but also its accessible offshore islands such as Sicily Sardinia , Britain Ireland
--J. Bennett and C. Hollister. 2006. Medieval Europe :
A Short History. p31
-----------------------------------------------------------
Pilgrim you ask: But what about evolutionary patterns? The ancient Caucasoid peoples of Europe in harsh cold climates going back to the Cro-magnons developed advanced cognitive skills which come down to the present time. This is shown in revolutionary developments by these Caucasoid peoples circa 30,000-40000 kya.
Sounds good, except, as credible scholarship such as McBreaty and Brooks show in "The Revolution that Wasn't" (2000) - alleged "revolutionary" cognitive or cultural advances had already taken place in Africa BEFORE significant migration to Europe. And even more upsetting to certain "hereditarian" racial theorists:
1) The alleged ancient "Caucasoids" were not all some claim them to be. Their limb proportions and other data actually show them to be of tropical provenance, migrants from Africa via various pathways- from land migrations via the "Middle East" to boat migrants across the Mediterranean. They would join with hunter gathers and steppe nomads in later eras and various ethnic mixes would take place, but the heart-warming picture of virtuous "Caucasoids" exclusively roaming the ancient European landscape is debunked by the data.
2) The "cognitive revolution" of symbolic processing, art, advanced toolmaking etc took place in Africa BEFORE migrations to Europe. Yes they did expand in scale in temperate Europe's easier environment, but that expansion itself debunks assertions of the woefully "harsh" European environment, which, far from being a vale of tears, was actually favorable in many respects.
Pilgrim you ask: But what about evolutionary patterns? The ancient Caucasoid peoples of Europe in harsh cold climates going back to the Cro-magnons developed advanced cognitive skills which come down to the present time. This is shown in revolutionary developments by these Caucasoid peoples circa 30,000-40000 kya.
Sounds good, except, as credible scholarship such as McBreaty and Brooks show in "The Revolution that Wasn't" (2000) - alleged "revolutionary" cognitive or cultural advances had already taken place in Africa BEFORE significant migration to Europe. And even more upsetting to certain "hereditarian" racial theorists:
1) The alleged ancient "Caucasoids" were not all some claim them to be. Their limb proportions and other data actually show them to be of tropical provenance, migrants from Africa via various pathways- from land migrations via the "Middle East" to boat migrants across the Mediterranean. They would join with hunter gathers and steppe nomads in later eras and various ethnic mixes would take place, but the heart-warming picture of virtuous "Caucasoids" exclusively roaming the ancient European landscape is debunked by the data.
2) The "cognitive revolution" of symbolic processing, art, advanced toolmaking etc took place in Africa BEFORE migrations to Europe. Yes they did expand in scale in temperate Europe's easier environment, but that expansion itself debunks assertions of the woefully "harsh" European environment, which, far from being a vale of tears, was actually favorable in many respects.
3) The much cherished claim that "Cro-magnons are us" is repeated ad infinitum in books and popular media as blond cavemen and cave-women skitter across a "harsh" landscape, but as credible scientists show, it is laughable folklore. If anything, some of the ancient Paleolithic "Caucasoid ancestors" looked like today's tropical Africans- i.e. blacks. Pause.. roll ominous musics.. See:
(Brace et al 2006. The questionable contribution of the Neolithic and the Bronze Age to European craniofacial form. PNAS 103 (1) 242-247).
4) Modern DNA studies (Jablonski 2010, 2012, 2000, et al for example Living Color, Skin :A Natural History etc) show that European white skin is a rather recent development, only some 6000-19000 years old, depending on the area examined. This means most of the "revolutionary Caucasoid developments" were in reality, "developed" by folk that would be called "black" these days.
5) Recent studies of ancient DNA confirms the skeletal data. Many of the early European ancestors looked African, both in cold climates and warmer European zones. Interestingly some DNA studies of ancient southern Europe find people there with the African version of the gene determining skin color. Southern Europe is relatively close to Africa just across the Mediterranean, and was actually much in advance of northern Europe as far as development of elaborate civilizations and cultures, contrary to propaganda about the "superiority" of cold-climate northern folk. Interesting that the European zone with the most African genetic material turns out to be the most advanced in ancient times..
QUOTE: "The biggest surprise was to discover that this individual [LaBrana European] possessed African versions in the genes that determine the light pigmentation of the current Europeans, which indicates that he had dark skin," Lalueza-Fox said... But the latest findings show that La Brana 1 still had dark skin and had been around the continent for 40,000 years, meaning fair skin probably evolved millennia later.” –Scientists on ancient Mesolithic European “LaBrana Man”
http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/europeans-had-dark-skin-blue-eyes-7-000-years-ago-1.2512465
 |
| Numerous alleged ancient Cro-magnon "ancestors" doing "revolutionary" things resembled African types.. |
PRE-HISTORIC ERA- again often favorable conditions- both
as to rich hunting ground, grasslands and rich aquatic resources even in colder
zones like the Swedish Iron Gates region
But let's go even further back. It is often alleged that
"harsh" conditions in the temperate zone hark back to
Cro-magnon/caveman times- with such conditions causing "evolutionary"
racial changes - you know - pale cold climate whites/Asians evolved good,
dark/black tropical people evolved bad and so on. Hell- let's quit pretending
and cut to the "racial" bottom line. But as scholar Roger Lewin below
shows, even back in the Paleolithic Europe, the oft claimed "harsh
environmental conditions" were not as "harsh" as proponents
claim. Even before agriculture, living was relatively good with plenty of rich hunting
grounds, and rich aquatic resources from fish to shellfish in lake, river and
ocean. And these resources were available all year round -
QUOTE:
"About 35,000 years ago, modern human populations apparently
entered Western Europe for the first time and found what
one pre-historian has described as 'a virtual Garden of Eden.' Southwest
France and northern Spain
-- Lewin, Roger (1988). In the Age of Mankind. Smithsonian.
pp. 196-199
Data 2- Famous Lascaux area of pre-historic France
QUOTE:
"The physical world inhabited by the painters and
engravers of Lascaux was unlike anything known today..
Sea levels plummeted more than 300 feet; dry land connected not only North
America and Asia but Britain Europe . Southern Europe
was cold, dry and covered with rich grasslands. In regions with some
topographical relief, like southwest France Spain Africa than anything seen in Europe
today. Herds of horses, bison, and aurochs roamed the grasslands, along with
reindeer and ibex in the hills...
To judge from discoveries of pollen and seed at some sites,
and from engravings at others, peoples of Lascaux and
their contemporaries ate blueberries, raspberries, acorns, hazelnuts, and other
tubers, nuts, berries and grasses.
The last Ice Age was by no means a period of unrelieved
cold, millennium after millennium. Temperatures fluctuated, sometimes coming
close to today's balmy interglacial climes, and the animal and plant
communities fluctuated in concert with them. Warmer climes brought woodland and
forest where only open grassland had existed previously. At the same time, the
horses and bison- animals of the plains, were replaced with red
deer
-- Lewin, Roger (1988). In the Age of Mankind. Smithsonian.
pp. 144
Data 3- Ancient
cold-adapted Europeans, whether viewed as Neanderthal humanoids or as more recent tribes had more than enough opportunity to pioneer plant and
animal domestication. Wild species of the cow, horse, pig and goat were all
well known. Wild ancestors of important crops- such as wheat-like spelt
variants, and chick peas were also in place. What then took the alleged
cold-adapted "pace-setters" so long to advance human civilization? Even the horse, though it may have been earlier hunted for meat, sacrificed in religious rituals, or herded like semi-wild reindeer, only clocks in at a late date of circa 2000-2500 BCE as a useful animal of domestication harnessed to human transport, warfare etc. This is about when credible genetic data shows the measurable changes in form, size and vaiability associated with domestication as seen in horse remains found at the site of Csepel-Haros in Hungary, a settlement of the Bell Beaker culture. (See Levine, Renfrew et al. 2003. Prehistoric Steppe Adaptation and the Horse. Cambridge: McDonald Institute. pp. 69–82; Librado, et al 2021. "The origins and spread of domestic horses from the Western Eurasian steppes". Nature. 598 (7882): 634–640.)
".. as critics of the climate theory point out, the
world has gone through many climate fluctuations in the 100,000 years since
modern humans occupied the Old World . Opportunities for
cultivation and animal husbandry surely existed earlier than the Neolithic. Yet
no evidence has emerged that any plant or animal domestication occurred before
this time. More specifically, no potential climatic trigger can be identified
in many of those cases in which development of domestication can be documented
sufficiently to reveal information about local climatic conditions."
-- Lewin, Roger (1988). In the Age of Mankind. Smithsonian.
pp. 193
Data 4- Even colder northern climes show a rich resource
base and substantial material life. Such resources, particularly the
water-based ones of the ocean, river and lake, were relatively stable and
predictable, providing plenty of food - hardly the picture of alleged
cold-climate peoples "deprivation" in "unforgiving" glacial
environments, as alleged by JP Rushton, Michael Levin, Satoshi Kanazawa et al..
"Similarities appear in societies in which there are
rich maritime or lakeside resources from the far north to the Mediterranean .
In the far northern latitudes, where for four months of the year the sun does
not set, the icy cold but resource-rich northern sea was the focus of
settlements with pit houses, with people using elaborate seagoing vessels in
their specialised focus on marine foods, probably associated with seal hunting
(Bjerck 1995, Bjerck, this volume). Further south, other structured settlements
echo the theme of marine or lakeside focus. At Tagerup in Sweden
"The Iron gates contain some of the largest
concentration of Mesolithic burials in Europe . Burials
have been recorded from at least eleven sites, and four of these, Lepenski Vir,
Padina, Schela Cladovei and Vlasac each contained very large numbers of
graves." [pg 241]
"Even Grahame Clark, excavator of Star Carr and pioneer
and champion of Mesolithic studies in Britain, was forced to concede with
evident reluctance in 1952 that the archaeological evidence for the coastal
Mesolithic peoples of Northwest Europe hardly contradicted the notion of 'a low
level of culture' (Clark 1952:63).. Extrapolating the origins of social
complexity to certain contexts in Mesolithic Europe marked a powerful departure
from ideas of small, marginalised groups apparently 'going nowhere'..
'Complexity' was built on dense, productive, coastal resources that were
available all year." [pg 4]
"Young (2000b:1) concluded that the discipline was
still 'waiting for the great leap forwards'. A long-standing story of
Mesolithic hunter-gatherers so immersed in their environments and nature, both
ecologically and ideologically as to be almost socially inert seems to retain a
strong hold on our imaginations." [pg 5]
-- G. N. Bailey (2008) Mesolithic Europe .
Cambridge University
==============================================================================
The notion of "advanced Ice Age genes"- pushed by self-identified racislists like Professor Michael Levin (1997- Why Race Matters) or JP Rushton (1995) , or Richard Lynn (1987), and sympathetic others like Charles Murray, can also be tested via DNA data, as James Flynn does in his book Are We Getting Smarter Yet (2012). Flynn demonstrates that people from one of the highest IQ sub-populations, that of Singapore, originated from the TROPICAL SOUTH, not the allegedly more virtuous and advanced cold climate North. Quote:
"Eppig, Fincher, and Thornhill (2010) asked what factor most parsimoniously accounted for these differences. When they controlled for temperature, distance from Africa, gross domestic product per capita, and education, multiple regression analysis showed parasitic stress was the most powerful predictor of national IQ by a large margin. The correlations are preceded by a minus because there was a negative correlation between untreated parasitic conditions and mean IQ. The correlation was -0.82 for both the set of 113 nations and the set of 192. They also found correlations of similar size within the world’s six major geographic regions with the exception, oddly, of South America.."
"Lynn (1987) and Rushton (1995) posit that extreme cold creates a more challenging environment, one that maximizes selection for genes for intelligence. During the Ice Ages, the ancestors of East Asians are supposed to have been north of the Himalayas where the cold was most intense, the ancestors of whites north of the Alps where the cold was next worst, and the ancestors of blacks still in Africa where it was relatively warm. Therefore, we have a racial hierarchy of better genes for intelligence running from East Asians to whites to blacks..
.. all of the recent data show that there is a genetic divide between north and south (Cavalli-Sforza, 1997, was the pioneer). The incidence of southern or non-Ice-Age genes increases as you go from north China toward the south, with the greatest concentration found in Guandong Province (Chen et al., 2009). Therefore, mean IQ should decline as we go along this vector. We have no IQ data from China itself that allows us to compare the south to the north. But we have a wonderful substitute: the DNA of the Chinese of Singapore shows that they are overwhelmingly from Guandong (the province in which non-Ice-Age genes are most dominant). Those who came to Singapore from Guandong were not a random sample. But if they were elite, they were only mildly so (Ee, 1961).
Therefore, the IQs of Singapore Chinese should be below mainland China. Lynn and Vanhanen (2006) put Singapore at top of the world with a mean IQ of 108. If one isolates the 74 percent of Singapore’s people that are Chinese, their mean rises to 114. Mainland China gets only 105. If these values hold, we can forget about the Ice Ages [theory] The role of IQ is to diagnose potential for cognitively complex cultural achievement. Either other factors can do the job (and modest IQ differences between nations are not that important) or the genes that would later generate IQ advantages were once adequately represented in the south."
--James Flynn. 2012. Are We Getting Smarter Yet: Rising IQ in the 21st Century. 33-35
Furthermore, allegedly more "backward" tropical locales actually produced some of the most advanced and spectacular civilization in human history. Southern or Upper Egypt for example, a large part of which falls within the tropical zone, is the area from whence the dynastic civilization arose, not the colder climate north with its allegedly more "challenging" environment. Said rise of civilization most credible scholars of Egypt (See Bard 2005, Kemp 2006, Yurco 1989, Teeter 2011 for example) show was an INDIGENOUS development, that did not need "wandering Caucasoids" from elsewhere to provide guidance or inspiration. In fact, while Egypt always maintained trade and contact with the Mesopotamia, some skeletal limb proportion studies of northern Egypt show the typical tropical heat-adapted patterns of the African peoples further south (Kemp 2006, Smith 2002) - in essence, a tropical people- rather than the "cognitively challenged" cold climate types racialist theories or lore would have us to believe.
Summary and bottom line- the tropical civilizations of Africa also debunk numerous right-wing claims
As shown above, various high IQ populations in Asia derive from the southern tropical regions, undermining standard right-wing propaganda memes about "backward" tropical evolution, including "time urgency" and such, don't hold much water when examined critically. Even more devastating for such racialist claims is the development of advanced civilizations in the tropical or near tropical zones, PRECEDING development in allegedly more "advanced" cold climate zones. Ancient Egypt which includes both the tropical zone and sub-tropical zone illustrates this (What? You didn't think that Egypt was in Africa? Or is partly tropical? LOL). It could be argued that various civilizations in Europe were not all cold climate but also benefited from sub-tropical conditions, such as in the Mediterranean. This is true, but nobody denies the Mediterranean civilizations are European, whereas the right wing or Arabist propaganda double standard is to deny Egypt as African.
But such propaganda fails under critical scrutiny. The genesis of Egyptian civilization is in the darker tropical and subtropical south, not the colder climate venues of the Mediterranean, or the Levant. As shown by credible scholars, the following summary points re applicable. Detailed discussion of that scholarship is shown here.
1) Southern Egypt, from which the genesis of Ancient Egypt civilization sprang, lies heavily in the tropical zone, from the Tropics of Cancer to Capricorn with the Tropic of cancer bisecting Southern Egypt at 23°26'N 25°0'E. The rest of Egypt is very similar, and is placed by scholars in the immediately adjacent subtropical or arid tropic zone, NOT the cold-climate zones of Europe or Asia.
(Thompson and Perry, 1997; Griffiths, 1976, Troll and Pfaffen 1964, Koppen-Geiger classification 2006)
2) The peoples of ancient Egypt, in the aforementioned zones, show the clear limb proportion characteristics of tropically adapted people, and MORE closely resemble other tropically adapted Africans on the continent, than Europeans or Middle Easterners.
(Raxter and Ruff 2008, Zakrewski 2003, 2007; Holliday et al, 2003, Kemp, 2005)
3) Undermining claims of cold-climate or skin color primacy for civilization, the great ancient Nile Valley civilization arose from the 'darker' more tropical south, NOT the cold climate or cool climate Mediterranean, Europe or Asia.
(Clark, 1982; Shaw 1976, 2003; Bard, 2004; Vogel, 1997; Kemp 2005)
4) The ancient Egyptians in their tropical and sub-tropical/arid tropic environment, did not need cold climate people to develop their distinct culture. Several strands of culture from religion to material living put the Egyptians closer to nearby Africans than to cold-climate Mediterraneans, Europeans or Asiatics.
(Keita, 1996, 2004; Yurco 1989, 1996; Williams, 1980; Britannia 1984; Wilkinson 1999; Wendorf, 2001)
5) European/Asiatic cold climate or light skin inspiration was unneeded by the tropically adapted Africans of ancient Egypt. They peopled the Nile Valley from the Sahara and the Sudan, and ancient Egypt is part of a tropical African lineage. Indigenous development sprang from a long tradition going back deep into the Sahara and the Sudan.
(Lovell, 1999; Lefkowitz, 1993, 1996; Keita 1993, Irish 2006)
6) DNA studies show the Egyptians link with other Africans via Haplogroup "E" to a much greater extent than cold climate Mediterraneans, Europeans or Middle easterners.
(Keita 2004, 2008; Richards 2003; Battaglia, 2008; Cruciani 2007; Lucotte 2003; Stevanovitch et al 2004)
7) African people have a range of physical variation and don't need any inspiration or mixes from cold-climate/light skinned Europeans or Asiatics to explain why. Features like narrow noses, thin lips, height etc are all indigenous to Africa. Africa has both the highest phenotypic diversity and the highest genetic diversity in the world and don’t need cold-climate/light skin inspiration for that established fact. All cold-climate/light skinned Europeans and Asiatics are SUBSETS of original African diversity. Modern DNA studies find even though some African peoples look different, they are genetically related through the PN2 transition clade of the Y-chromosome. Thus light-skinned African Libyans and dark-skinned Zulus are all genetically related Africans, even though they don't look exactly the same.
(Keita 2004; Tishkoff 2002, Ely et al, 2006, Stevanovitch 2004)
8) African peoples are the most diverse in the world whether analyzed by DNA or skeletal or cranial methods. The peoples of the Nile Valley vary but they are still related. The people most related ethnically to the ancient Egyptians are other Africans like Nubians not cold-climate/light skinned Europeans or Asiatics.
(Keita 1996; Rethelford, 2001; Bianchi 2004, Yurco 1989; Godde 2009)
More backward tropical developments..
9) Not needing cold-climate/slight-skinned inspiration, the peoples of ancient Egypt are more closely linked with fellow tropical Africans in terms of cranial studies than with Europeans or Asiatics. Analysis of skeletal and cranial remains reveals that the ancient Egyptians of the early Dynastic and pre-Dynastic phases, link closer to nearby Saharan, Sudanic and East African populations than Mediterranean and Middle Eastern peoples. Greeks, Romans, Hyskos, Arabs and others were to appear later in Egyptian history. Craniometric studies generally place ancient Upper Egyptian populations closer to the range of tropical Africans in the Nile Valley and East Africa than to Mediterraneans, or Middle Easterners.
(Keita 1990, 1993, 1996, 2004; Hiernaux 1975; Froment 2002; Kemp 2005)
10) Comparatively recent (in evolutionary terms) Europeans and Asiatics LOOKED LIKE tropical Africans with dark skin and other features, before cold-climate adaptation changed them. Light skin color is a RECENT development for Europeans and Asiatics. The foundations of civilization in terms of key animal and plant domesticates, and associated technology in Europe and Asia were thus laid by these dark-skinned migrants from Africa, who resembled today's Africans, undermining claims of the efficacy of "whiteness" in laying the basic foundations or in building advanced civilizations such as that built by the tropically adapted peoples of the Nile Valley.
(Jablonski 2000; Brace 2005; Hanihara 1996; Rethelford 2000)
As shown above, various high IQ populations in Asia derive from the southern tropical regions, undermining standard right-wing propaganda memes about "backward" tropical evolution, including "time urgency" and such, don't hold much water when examined critically. Even more devastating for such racialist claims is the development of advanced civilizations in the tropical or near tropical zones, PRECEDING development in allegedly more "advanced" cold climate zones. Ancient Egypt which includes both the tropical zone and sub-tropical zone illustrates this (What? You didn't think that Egypt was in Africa? Or is partly tropical? LOL). It could be argued that various civilizations in Europe were not all cold climate but also benefited from sub-tropical conditions, such as in the Mediterranean. This is true, but nobody denies the Mediterranean civilizations are European, whereas the right wing or Arabist propaganda double standard is to deny Egypt as African.
But such propaganda fails under critical scrutiny. The genesis of Egyptian civilization is in the darker tropical and subtropical south, not the colder climate venues of the Mediterranean, or the Levant. As shown by credible scholars, the following summary points re applicable. Detailed discussion of that scholarship is shown here.
1) Southern Egypt, from which the genesis of Ancient Egypt civilization sprang, lies heavily in the tropical zone, from the Tropics of Cancer to Capricorn with the Tropic of cancer bisecting Southern Egypt at 23°26'N 25°0'E. The rest of Egypt is very similar, and is placed by scholars in the immediately adjacent subtropical or arid tropic zone, NOT the cold-climate zones of Europe or Asia.
(Thompson and Perry, 1997; Griffiths, 1976, Troll and Pfaffen 1964, Koppen-Geiger classification 2006)
2) The peoples of ancient Egypt, in the aforementioned zones, show the clear limb proportion characteristics of tropically adapted people, and MORE closely resemble other tropically adapted Africans on the continent, than Europeans or Middle Easterners.
(Raxter and Ruff 2008, Zakrewski 2003, 2007; Holliday et al, 2003, Kemp, 2005)
3) Undermining claims of cold-climate or skin color primacy for civilization, the great ancient Nile Valley civilization arose from the 'darker' more tropical south, NOT the cold climate or cool climate Mediterranean, Europe or Asia.
(Clark, 1982; Shaw 1976, 2003; Bard, 2004; Vogel, 1997; Kemp 2005)
4) The ancient Egyptians in their tropical and sub-tropical/arid tropic environment, did not need cold climate people to develop their distinct culture. Several strands of culture from religion to material living put the Egyptians closer to nearby Africans than to cold-climate Mediterraneans, Europeans or Asiatics.
(Keita, 1996, 2004; Yurco 1989, 1996; Williams, 1980; Britannia 1984; Wilkinson 1999; Wendorf, 2001)
5) European/Asiatic cold climate or light skin inspiration was unneeded by the tropically adapted Africans of ancient Egypt. They peopled the Nile Valley from the Sahara and the Sudan, and ancient Egypt is part of a tropical African lineage. Indigenous development sprang from a long tradition going back deep into the Sahara and the Sudan.
(Lovell, 1999; Lefkowitz, 1993, 1996; Keita 1993, Irish 2006)
6) DNA studies show the Egyptians link with other Africans via Haplogroup "E" to a much greater extent than cold climate Mediterraneans, Europeans or Middle easterners.
(Keita 2004, 2008; Richards 2003; Battaglia, 2008; Cruciani 2007; Lucotte 2003; Stevanovitch et al 2004)
7) African people have a range of physical variation and don't need any inspiration or mixes from cold-climate/light skinned Europeans or Asiatics to explain why. Features like narrow noses, thin lips, height etc are all indigenous to Africa. Africa has both the highest phenotypic diversity and the highest genetic diversity in the world and don’t need cold-climate/light skin inspiration for that established fact. All cold-climate/light skinned Europeans and Asiatics are SUBSETS of original African diversity. Modern DNA studies find even though some African peoples look different, they are genetically related through the PN2 transition clade of the Y-chromosome. Thus light-skinned African Libyans and dark-skinned Zulus are all genetically related Africans, even though they don't look exactly the same.
(Keita 2004; Tishkoff 2002, Ely et al, 2006, Stevanovitch 2004)
8) African peoples are the most diverse in the world whether analyzed by DNA or skeletal or cranial methods. The peoples of the Nile Valley vary but they are still related. The people most related ethnically to the ancient Egyptians are other Africans like Nubians not cold-climate/light skinned Europeans or Asiatics.
(Keita 1996; Rethelford, 2001; Bianchi 2004, Yurco 1989; Godde 2009)
More backward tropical developments..
9) Not needing cold-climate/slight-skinned inspiration, the peoples of ancient Egypt are more closely linked with fellow tropical Africans in terms of cranial studies than with Europeans or Asiatics. Analysis of skeletal and cranial remains reveals that the ancient Egyptians of the early Dynastic and pre-Dynastic phases, link closer to nearby Saharan, Sudanic and East African populations than Mediterranean and Middle Eastern peoples. Greeks, Romans, Hyskos, Arabs and others were to appear later in Egyptian history. Craniometric studies generally place ancient Upper Egyptian populations closer to the range of tropical Africans in the Nile Valley and East Africa than to Mediterraneans, or Middle Easterners.
(Keita 1990, 1993, 1996, 2004; Hiernaux 1975; Froment 2002; Kemp 2005)
10) Comparatively recent (in evolutionary terms) Europeans and Asiatics LOOKED LIKE tropical Africans with dark skin and other features, before cold-climate adaptation changed them. Light skin color is a RECENT development for Europeans and Asiatics. The foundations of civilization in terms of key animal and plant domesticates, and associated technology in Europe and Asia were thus laid by these dark-skinned migrants from Africa, who resembled today's Africans, undermining claims of the efficacy of "whiteness" in laying the basic foundations or in building advanced civilizations such as that built by the tropically adapted peoples of the Nile Valley.
(Jablonski 2000; Brace 2005; Hanihara 1996; Rethelford 2000)
LINKS TO OTHER POSTS:
Rulers of Rubble- The real Gaza ground invasion - Part 1
https://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2023/10/the-rulers-of-rubble-why-idf-is-not.html
https://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2023/10/the-rulers-of-rubble-why-idf-is-not.html
https://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2022/06/critical-race-theory-debunked-part-2.html
https://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2022/05/critical-race-theory-debunked-white.html
Biden won, get over it, but can he breakout in Covid era?
https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/686085999190798340/6179060851903968774
https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/686085999190798340/6179060851903968774
https://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2020/11/teflon-dons-coating-in-trouble-can-he.html
The Teflon Don may reap benefit from Floyd protest violence and looting
https://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2020/06/teflon-don-may-see-fulsome-benefits.html
The Teflon Don- Covid-era approval rating may signal November success
https://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2020/05/the-teflon-don-covid-era-approval.html
https://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2020/06/teflon-don-may-see-fulsome-benefits.html
The Teflon Don- Covid-era approval rating may signal November success
https://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2020/05/the-teflon-don-covid-era-approval.html
Would a Biden win be any big loss for Republicans?
https://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2020/04/would-biden-win-be-any-big-loss-for.html
Tchalla's "Wakanda First" philosophy looks a bit like Donald Trump's "America First" approach
https://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2019/01/tchallas-wakanda-first-philosophy-looks.html
Significant EEOC Race-Color Cases- Covering Private and Federal Sectors
https://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2019/01/blog-post.html
'AsiaRate' Lawsuit against Harvard shows dirty little secret- white quotas used at elite universities
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2018/06/asiarate-lawsuit-against-harvard-shows.html
Some gays find welcome home in the 'alt-right' as nationalist organizations step up recruitment
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2018/05/some-gays-find-welcome-home-in-alt.html
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2017/07/racial-discrimination-is-alive-and.html
Sowell 3- new data shows backward tropical evolution? Wealth and Poverty- An International Perspective in Trump era
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2017/07/sowell-3-new-data-shows-backward.html
Sowell 2- Wealth, Poverty and Politics- International Perspective - Trump era to bring these issues into sharper focus?
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2017/07/sowell-2-wealth-poverty-and-politics.html
Sowell- Liberal intellectuals and hard questions about race differences- Trump era may force them to focus?
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2017/07/sowell-liberal-intellectuals-and-hard.html
Trump properties discriminated against black tenants lawsuit finds
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2016/07/trump-properties-discriminated-against.html
Stealing credibility- Dinesh D'souza has prison epiphany- after hanging with the homies- Hallelujah Hilary!
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2016/05/straining-credibility-dinesh-dsouza-has.html
Shame on you, and your guilt too- A review of Shelby Steele's 'Shame'
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2016/05/a-review-wealth-poverty-and-politics.html
Go with the flow 3- more DNA and cranial studies show ancient African migration to, or African presence in ancient Europe
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2016/04/go-with-flow-3-more-dna-and-cranial.html
Go with the flow 2- African gene flow into Europe in various eras
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/11/go-with-flow-2-african-gene-flow-into.html
DNA studies show African movement to Europe from very ancient times
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/09/dna-studies-show-african-movement-to.html
Guilt3- Why the "white privilege industry" is not all there
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/09/guilt3-why-white-privilege-industry-is.html
Guilt2- Media collaborates with guilt mongers - or how to play the white victim card
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How Obama plays on white guilt
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/08/how-obama-plays-upon-white-guilt-hilary.html
Blacks oppose free speech- more ramshackle "research" from "the East"..
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/08/blacks-oppose-free-speech-ramshackle.html
Hands off the Confederate flag
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Despite much more wealth than blacks, whites collect about the same rate of welfare and are treated more generously
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/06/despite-much-more-wealth-than-blacks.html
African "boat people" ushering in European demographic decline
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/05/african-boat-people-ushering-in.html
The forgotten Holocaust- King Leopold's "Congo Free State" - 10 million victims
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Are violent minorities taking over California and the West?
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Presidential hopeful Ben Carson meets and Greeks
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Contra "ISIS" partisans, there have been some beneficial effects of Christianity
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The social construction of race, compared to biology- Graves
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Why HBD or hereditarianism lacks credibility
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Leading Scientists criticize hereditarian claims
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Thai me down - Thais fall behind genetically related southern Chinese, Tibetans below genetically related East Asians like Koreans and other Chinese
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Time for liberals to respect "the south" ... in a way of speaking.. the south of Egypt that is..
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/08/time-for-liberals-to-respect-south-in.html
Irony 2: touted High IQ "G-men" cannot reproduce themselves
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/07/irony-2-higher-iqs-correlated-with_25.html
Unz and Sowell: Unz debunking Lynn's IQ and Wealth of Nations. Sowell debunking the Bell Curve
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/07/unz-and-sowell-unz-debunking-lynns-iq.html
Irony 1: touted High IQ types are more homosexual, more atheist, and more liberal (HAL)
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/06/irony-high-iqs-produce-more-atheists.html
Elite white universities discriminate against Asians using reverse "affirmative action"
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/06/elite-white-universities-discriminate.html
Deteriorating state of white America
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/05/deteriorating-state-of-white-america.html
Racial Cartels (The Affirmative Action Propaganda machine- part 2
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/05/the-affirmative-action-propaganda.html
Hereditarian's/HBD's "Great Black Hope"
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/04/blog-post.html
Exploding nonsense: the 10,000 Year Explosion
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/03/exploding-nonsense-review-of-cochran_8.html
We need "rational racism"- Convicted felon Dinesh Dsouza becomes his own test case
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/01/we-need-rational-racism-proponent.html
The Affirmative Action Propaganda Machine- part 1
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/01/the-affirmatve-action-propaganda.html
Two rules for being "really" black- no white wimmen, no Republican
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/01/to-be-really-black-you-cant-have-white.html
The Axial age reconsidered
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Cannibal seasonings: dark meat on white
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/12/i.html
"Affirmative Action" in the form of court remedies has been around a long time- since the 1930s- benefiting white union workers against discrimination by employers
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/09/affirmative-action-as-term-appears-in.html
Mugged by reality 1: White quotas, special preferences and government jobs
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/06/mugged-by-reality-1-white-quotas.html
Lightweight enforcement of EEO laws contradicts claims of "flood" of minorities "taking jobs"
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/06/blog-post.html
Railroaded 3: white violence and intimidation imposed quotas
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/06/railroaded-3-white-violence-and.html
Railroaded 2: how white quotas and special preferences blockade black progress...
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/06/railroaded-2-thow-white-quotas-and.html
Railroaded 1: How white affirmative action and white special preferences destroyed black railroad employment...
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/06/railroaded-how-white-affirmative-action.html
Affirmative action: primary beneficiaries are white women
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2011/04/affirmative-action-primary.html
7 reasons certain libertarians and right-wingers are wrong about the Civil Right Act
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2012/05/7-reasons-libertarians-may-be-wrong.html
Assorted "Role models" debunked- hypocritical heriditarianism
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2009/11/hbd-debunked-debunking-hypocritical.htmll
Social philosophy of Thomas Sowell
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2011/07/social-philosophy-of-thomas-sowell.html
Additional gene flow data... :)
Go with the flow 2- African gene flow into Europe in various eras
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/11/go-with-flow-2-african-gene-flow-into.html
DNA studies show African movement to Europe from very ancient times
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/09/dna-studies-show-african-movement-to.html
Guilt3- Why the "white privilege industry" is not all there
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/09/guilt3-why-white-privilege-industry-is.html
Guilt2- Media collaborates with guilt mongers - or how to play the white victim card
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/09/guilt2-media-collaborates-with-guilt.html
How Obama plays on white guilt
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/08/how-obama-plays-upon-white-guilt-hilary.html
Blacks oppose free speech- more ramshackle "research" from "the East"..
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/08/blacks-oppose-free-speech-ramshackle.html
Hands off the Confederate flag
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/06/hands-off-confederate-flag.html
Despite much more wealth than blacks, whites collect about the same rate of welfare and are treated more generously
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/06/despite-much-more-wealth-than-blacks.html
African "boat people" ushering in European demographic decline
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/05/african-boat-people-ushering-in.html
The forgotten Holocaust- King Leopold's "Congo Free State" - 10 million victims
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/04/the-forgotten-holocaust-10-million-in.html
Are violent minorities taking over California and the West?
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/04/are-violent-minorities-taking-over.html
Presidential hopeful Ben Carson meets and Greeks
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/03/presidential-hopeful-ben-carson-meet.html
Contra "ISIS" partisans, there have been some beneficial effects of Christianity
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/03/contra-isis-partisans-there-are-some.html
The social construction of race, compared to biology- Graves
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2015/02/the-social-construction-of-race_8.html
Why HBD or hereditarianism lacks credibility
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/10/why-hbd-or-hereditarianism-lacks.html
Leading Scientists criticize hereditarian claims
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/08/leading-scientists-criticize.html
Thai me down - Thais fall behind genetically related southern Chinese, Tibetans below genetically related East Asians like Koreans and other Chinese
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/08/thai-me-up-thai-me-down.html
Time for liberals to respect "the south" ... in a way of speaking.. the south of Egypt that is..
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/08/time-for-liberals-to-respect-south-in.html
Irony 2: touted High IQ "G-men" cannot reproduce themselves
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/07/irony-2-higher-iqs-correlated-with_25.html
Unz and Sowell: Unz debunking Lynn's IQ and Wealth of Nations. Sowell debunking the Bell Curve
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/07/unz-and-sowell-unz-debunking-lynns-iq.html
Irony 1: touted High IQ types are more homosexual, more atheist, and more liberal (HAL)
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/06/irony-high-iqs-produce-more-atheists.html
Elite white universities discriminate against Asians using reverse "affirmative action"
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/06/elite-white-universities-discriminate.html
Deteriorating state of white America
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/05/deteriorating-state-of-white-america.html
Racial Cartels (The Affirmative Action Propaganda machine- part 2
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/05/the-affirmative-action-propaganda.html
Hereditarian's/HBD's "Great Black Hope"
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/04/blog-post.html
Exploding nonsense: the 10,000 Year Explosion
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/03/exploding-nonsense-review-of-cochran_8.html
We need "rational racism"- Convicted felon Dinesh Dsouza becomes his own test case
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/01/we-need-rational-racism-proponent.html
The Affirmative Action Propaganda Machine- part 1
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/01/the-affirmatve-action-propaganda.html
Two rules for being "really" black- no white wimmen, no Republican
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/01/to-be-really-black-you-cant-have-white.html
The Axial age reconsidered
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/01/the-axial-age-reconsidered.html
Cannibal seasonings: dark meat on white
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/12/i.html
"Affirmative Action" in the form of court remedies has been around a long time- since the 1930s- benefiting white union workers against discrimination by employers
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/09/affirmative-action-as-term-appears-in.html
Mugged by reality 1: White quotas, special preferences and government jobs
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/06/mugged-by-reality-1-white-quotas.html
Lightweight enforcement of EEO laws contradicts claims of "flood" of minorities "taking jobs"
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/06/blog-post.html
Railroaded 3: white violence and intimidation imposed quotas
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/06/railroaded-3-white-violence-and.html
Railroaded 2: how white quotas and special preferences blockade black progress...
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/06/railroaded-2-thow-white-quotas-and.html
Railroaded 1: How white affirmative action and white special preferences destroyed black railroad employment...
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/06/railroaded-how-white-affirmative-action.html
Affirmative action: primary beneficiaries are white women
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2011/04/affirmative-action-primary.html
7 reasons certain libertarians and right-wingers are wrong about the Civil Right Act
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2012/05/7-reasons-libertarians-may-be-wrong.html
Assorted "Role models" debunked- hypocritical heriditarianism
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2009/11/hbd-debunked-debunking-hypocritical.htmll
Social philosophy of Thomas Sowell
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2011/07/social-philosophy-of-thomas-sowell.html
Additional gene flow data... :)
Bogus "biodiversity" theories of Kanazawa, Ruston, Lynn debunked
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2010/09/blog-post.html
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2010/09/blog-post.html
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2010/04/blog-post_1818.html
In the Blood- debunking "HBD" and Neo-Nazi appropriation of ancient Egypt
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2009/11/blog-post_29.html
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2009/11/blog-post_29.html
early
Europeans and middle Easterners looked like Africans. Peoples returning
or "backflowing" to Africa would already be looking like Africans
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2010/05/blog-post_1754.html
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2010/05/blog-post_1754.html
Ancient Egypt: one of the world's most advanced civilizations- created by tropical peoples
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2010/09/blog-post_06.html
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2010/09/blog-post_06.html
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/03/playing-greek-defence-review-of-thornton.html
Quotations from mainstream academic research on the Nile Valley peoples
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2010/04/blog-post_9251.html
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2010/04/blog-post_9251.html
http://egyptsearchreloaded.proboards.com/thread/15/basic-database-nile-valley-studies
OTHER LINKS
Race, IQ, and Wealth: What the facts tell us about a taboo subject By Ron Unz
HBD EVOLUTION, BRAIN SIZE AND NATIONAL IQ CLAIMS DEBUNKED
IQ claims and miscellaneous data
"This writer, for example, is a devout Christian.."
--Afrocentric scholar Chancellor Williams, The Destruction of Black Civilization. 1974. pp. 334
Race, IQ, and Wealth: What the facts tell us about a taboo subject By Ron Unz
HBD EVOLUTION, BRAIN SIZE AND NATIONAL IQ CLAIMS DEBUNKED
Evolution, brain size, and the national IQ of peoples ... -
Jelte Wicherts 2010
http://wicherts.socsci.uva.nl/wichertsPAIDrejoinder.pdf
------------------------------------
Why national IQs do not support evolutionary theories of
intelligence - WIcherts, Borsboom and Dolan 2010
Personality and Individual Differences 48 (2010) 91-96
http://wicherts.socsci.uva.nl/wicherts2010.pdf
----------------------------- -------------
Are intelligence tests measurement invariant over time? by
JM Wicherts - ?2004
--Dolan, Wicherts et
al 2004. Investigating the nature of the Flynn effect. Intelligence 32 (2004)
509-537
http://www.iapsych.com/iqmr/fe/LinkedDocuments/wicherts2004.pdf
-------------------------------------------
LYNN AND VANHAVEN'S IQ AND THE WEALTH OF NATIONS DEBUNKED
---------------- -------
www.anth.uconn.edu/faculty/mcbrearty/Pdf/McB%20&%20Brooks%202000%20TRTW.pdf
------------------------
Race and other misadventures: essays in honor of Ashley
Montagu... By Larry T. Reynolds, Leonard Lieberman
http://books.google.com/books?id=5DLrgG_MflgC&pg=PA190&dq=r-+k-+selection+races&cd=1#v=onepage&q=r-%20k-%20selection%20races&f=false
--------------------------------
Race and intelligence: separating science from myth. By Jefferson
M. Fish. Routledge 2002. See Templeton's detailed article referenced above also
inside the book
http://books.google.com/books?id=t9OdPPLIgMAC&pg=PA64&dq=r-+k-+selection+races&cd=7#v=onepage&q=r-%20k-%20selection%20races&f=false
------------------------
http://www.ogiek.org/indepth/what-they-mean.htm
---------------- -------
Oubre, A (2011) Race Genes and Ability: Rethinking Ethnic
Differences, vol 1 and 2. BTI Press
For summary see: http://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/05-02-18/
---------------- -------
http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/course/topics/curveball.html
 |
-----------------------------------------------------------
--S OY Keita, R A Kittles, et al. "Conceptualizing human
variation," Nature Genetics 36, S17 - S20 (2004)
http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v36/n11s/pdf/ng1455.pdf
--S.O.Y. Keita and Rick Kittles. (1997) *The Persistence ofRacial Thinking and the Myth of Racial Divergence. AJPA, 99:3
http://www.councilforresponsiblegenetics.org/pageDocuments/WAURRSZQOE.pdf
---------------- -------
HBD RACE EVOLUTION CLAIMS DEBUNKED BY GENETICISTS
Alan Templeton. "The Genetic and Evolutionary
significnce oF Human Races." pp 31-56. IN: J. FiSh (2002) Race and
Intelligence: Separating scinnce from myth.
IQ claims and miscellaneous data
HBD RACE AND INTELLIGENCE CLAIMS DEBUNKED
J. FiSh (2002) Race
and Intelligence: Separating science from myth.
------------------------------------------
MORE HBD DEBUNKING
-------------------------------- ---------------------
Oubre, A (2011) Race Genes and Ability: Rethinking Ethnic
Differences, vol 1 and 2. BTI Press
----------------------------------------------
Krimsky, S, Sloan.K (2011) Race and the Genetic Revolution:
Science, Myth, and Culture
-------------------------------
"This writer, for example, is a devout Christian.."
--Afrocentric scholar Chancellor Williams, The Destruction of Black Civilization. 1974. pp. 334
Wicherts and Johnson, 2009. Group differences in the
heritability of items and test scores
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2009/04/24/rspb.2009.0238.full
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/06/coming-apart-can-murrays-down-with.html
"SELECTION FOR"- "SELECT FOR" HDB
CLAIMS DEBUNKED- "SELECTION" IS NOT THE ONLY KEY FORCE DRIVING CHANGE
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2012/12/demic-diffusion-notes-and-tropical.html
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2012/05/7-reasons-libertarians-may-be-wrong.html
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2012/08/cro-magnons-are-us-debunking-claims.html
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/03/exploding-nonsense-review-of-cochran_8.html
--Joseph Graves, 2006. What We Know and What We Don’t Know:
Human Genetic Variation and the Social Construction of Race
http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Graves/
J. Kahn (2013) How a Drug Becomes "Ethnic" - Yale
Journal of Health Policy, Law and Ethics, v4:1
http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1072&context=yjhple
------------------------------------ -----------------
http://evolution.binghamton.edu/evos/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/PageProofs-Graves_race.pdf
-------------------------------------------- ----------------------------
other links
Evolution, brain size, and the national IQ of peoples ... -
Jelte Wicherts 2010
http://wicherts.socsci.uva.nl/wichertsPAIDrejoinder.pdf
------------------------------------
Why national IQs do not support evolutionary theories of
intelligence - WIcherts, Borsboom and Dolan 2010
Personality and Individual Differences 48 (2010) 91-96
http://wicherts.socsci.uva.nl/wicherts2010.pdf
----------------------------- -------------
Are intelligence tests measurement invariant over time? by
JM Wicherts - ?2004
--Dolan, Wicherts et
al 2004. Investigating the nature of the Flynn effect. Intelligence 32 (2004)
509-537
http://www.iapsych.com/iqmr/fe/LinkedDocuments/wicherts2004.pdf
-------------------------------------------
LYNN AND VANHAVEN'S IQ AND THE WEALTH OF NATIONS DEBUNKED
---------------- -------
www.anth.uconn.edu/faculty/mcbrearty/Pdf/McB%20&%20Brooks%202000%20TRTW.pdf
------------------------
Race and other misadventures: essays in honor of Ashley
Montagu... By Larry T. Reynolds, Leonard Lieberman
http://books.google.com/books?id=5DLrgG_MflgC&pg=PA190&dq=r-+k-+selection+races&cd=1#v=onepage&q=r-%20k-%20selection%20races&f=false
--------------------------------
Race and intelligence: separating science from myth. By Jefferson
M. Fish. Routledge 2002. See Templeton's detailed article referenced above also
inside the book
http://books.google.com/books?id=t9OdPPLIgMAC&pg=PA64&dq=r-+k-+selection+races&cd=7#v=onepage&q=r-%20k-%20selection%20races&f=false
------------------------
http://www.ogiek.org/indepth/what-they-mean.htm
---------------- -------
Oubre, A (2011) Race Genes and Ability: Rethinking Ethnic
Differences, vol 1 and 2. BTI Press
For summary see: http://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/05-02-18/
---------------- -------
http://www.dartmouth.edu/~chance/course/topics/curveball.html
-----------------------------------------------------------
--S OY Keita, R A Kittles, et al. "Conceptualizing human
variation," Nature Genetics 36, S17 - S20 (2004)
http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v36/n11s/pdf/ng1455.pdf
--S.O.Y. Keita and Rick Kittles. (1997) *The Persistence ofRacial Thinking and the Myth of Racial Divergence. AJPA, 99:3
http://www.councilforresponsiblegenetics.org/pageDocuments/WAURRSZQOE.pdf
---------------- -------
HBD RACE EVOLUTION CLAIMS DEBUNKED BY GENETICISTS
Alan Templeton. "The Genetic and Evolutionary
significnce oF Human Races." pp 31-56. IN: J. FiSh (2002) Race and
Intelligence: Separating scinnce from myth.
HBD RACE AND INTELLIGENCE CLAIMS DEBUNKED
J. FiSh (2002) Race
and Intelligence: Separating science from myth.
------------------------------------------
MORE HBD DEBUNKING
-------------------------------- ---------------------
Oubre, A (2011) Race Genes and Ability: Rethinking Ethnic
Differences, vol 1 and 2. BTI Press
----------------------------------------------
Krimsky, S, Sloan.K (2011) Race and the Genetic Revolution:
Science, Myth, and Culture
-------------------------------
Wicherts and Johnson, 2009. Group differences in the
heritability of items and test scores
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/early/2009/04/24/rspb.2009.0238.full
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2013/06/coming-apart-can-murrays-down-with.html
"SELECTION FOR"- "SELECT FOR" HDB
CLAIMS DEBUNKED- "SELECTION" IS NOT THE ONLY KEY FORCE DRIVING CHANGE
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2012/12/demic-diffusion-notes-and-tropical.html
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2012/05/7-reasons-libertarians-may-be-wrong.html
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2012/08/cro-magnons-are-us-debunking-claims.html
http://nilevalleypeoples.blogspot.com/2014/03/exploding-nonsense-review-of-cochran_8.html
--Joseph Graves, 2006. What We Know and What We Don’t Know:
Human Genetic Variation and the Social Construction of Race
http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Graves/
J. Kahn (2013) How a Drug Becomes "Ethnic" - Yale
Journal of Health Policy, Law and Ethics, v4:1
http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1072&context=yjhple
------------------------------------ -----------------
Egyptian_boatmen_tomb_middlekindgom
http://evolution.binghamton.edu/evos/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/PageProofs-Graves_race.pdf
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